Low-impact controlled movement of the spine- and pelvis-stabilising muscles. Strongest results: less long-standing back pain, better balance, flexibility and everyday movement in older adults. Mood, sleep, body fat, blood pressure and blood sugar shift mostly where a problem exists. No gain in maximal strength or bone density, no reduction in falls. A well-supported addition to strength work, a poor replacement. (Full Review)
| Marker | Target | Why |
|---|---|---|
| Bone mineral density T-score | At or above −1.0 | Decides if loaded flexion is safe |
| Timed up-and-go | Under 8 seconds | Strength, balance, gait speed |
| Single-leg stance, eyes open | 45 s or more under 60; 30 s or more after | Static balance, behind reduced fall risk |
| 30-second chair stand | 17 or more at 60–64; 14 or more at 75–79 | Lower-limb power, not reliably improved |
| Resting blood pressure | At or below 115/75 mmHg | Benefit and contraindication threshold |
| Glycated haemoglobin (HbA1c) | 4.8–5.4% | Only elevated values respond |
| Fasting lipid panel | LDL-C under 100, triglycerides under 80 mg/dL | Lowered only in people with diabetes |
| High-sensitivity C-reactive protein (hs-CRP) | Under 0.5 mg/L | General inflammatory load |
| 25-hydroxyvitamin D | 40–60 ng/mL | Modifies falls and fracture risk |
| Sit-and-reach | None set; track own baseline | Flexibility shifts measurably |
Cadence: Functional battery at 6 and 12 weeks, then every 6 months; blood markers at 12 weeks, then every 6–12 months; densitometry every 2 years, annually if baseline low